Bosnia and Herzegovina

Map of Bosnia and Herzegovina Presidency: Zeljko Komsic (Bosnian Croat, 2006), Bakir Izetbegovic (Bosniak, 2010), Nebojsa Radmanovic (Bosnian Serb, 2006) Prime Minister: Vjekoslav Bevanda (2012) Total area: 19,741 sq mi (51,129 sq km) Population (2012 est.): 4,622,292) (growth rate: -0.003%); birth rate: 8.89/1000; infant mortality rate: 8.47/1000; life expectancy: 78.96 Capital and largest city (2009 est.):Sarajevo, 392,000 Monetary unit: Marka National Name: Bosna i Hercegovina Current government officials Languages: Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian Ethnicity/race: Bosniak 48%, Serb 37.1%, Croat 14.3%, other 0.6% (2000) National Holiday: National Day, November 25 Religions: Islam 40%, Orthodox 31%, Roman Catholic 15%, other 14% Literacy rate: 96.7. Economic summary: GDP/PPP (2011 est.): $31.72 billion; per capita $8,200.Real growth rate: 2.2%. Inflation:3.8%. Unemployment: 43.3% official rate. Arable land: 19.61%.Agriculture: wheat, corn, fruits, vegetables; livestock. Labor force: 2.6 million (2010); agriculture 20.5%, industry 32.6%, services 47%Industries: steel, coal, iron ore, lead, zinc, manganese, bauxite, vehicle assembly, textiles, tobacco products, wooden furniture, tank and aircraft assembly, domestic appliances, oil refining. Natural resources: coal, iron ore, bauxite, copper, lead, zinc, chromite, cobalt, manganese, nickel, clay, gypsum, salt, sand, forests, hydropower. Exports: $5.579 billion (2011 est.): metals, clothing, wood products. Imports: $10.38 billion (2011 est.): machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, foodstuffs. Major trading partners: Italy, Croatia, Germany, Austria, Slovenia, Hungary (2010). Communications: Telephones: main lines in use: 998,600 (2010); mobile cellular: 3.014 million (2010).Broadcast media: 3 public TV broadcasters: Radio and TV of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Federation TV (operating 2 networks), and Republika Srpska Radio-TV; a local commercial network of 5 TV stations; 3 private, near-national TV stations and dozens of small independent TV stations broadcasting; 3 large public radio broadcasters and a large number of private radio stations (2010). Internet hosts: 146,152 (2011). Internet users:1.422 million (2009). Transportation: Railways: total: 601 km (electrified 392 km) (2009).Highways: total: 22,926 km; paved: 19,426 km; unpaved: 3,500 km (2010).Waterways: Sava River (northern border) open to shipping but use limited (2009). Ports and terminals:Bosanska Gradiska, Bosanski Brod, Bosanski Samac, and Brcko (all inland waterway ports on the Sava), Orasje.Airports: 25 (2010). International disputes: Serbia delimited about half of the boundary with Bosnia and Herzegovina, but sections along the Drina River remain in dispute. Major sources and definitions

Geography | Government | History

Geography

Bosnia and Herzegovina make up a triangular-shaped republic, about half the size of Kentucky, on the Balkan peninsula. The Bosnian region in the north is mountainous and covered with thick forests. The Herzegovina region in the south is largely rugged, flat farmland. It has a narrow coastline without natural harbors stretching 13 mi (20 km) along the Adriatic Sea.

Government

Emerging democracy, with a rotating, tripartite presidency divided between predominantly Serb, Croatian, and Bosnian political parties.

History

Called Illyricum in ancient times, the area now called Bosnia and Herzegovina was conquered by the Romans in the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C.and folded into the Roman province of Dalmatia. In the 4th and 5th centuries A.D., Goths overran that portion of the declining Roman Empire and occupied the area until the 6th century, when the Byzantine Empire claimed it. Slavs began settling the region during the 7th century. Around 1200, Bosnia won independence from Hungary and endured as an independent Christian state for some 260 years.

The expansion of the Ottoman Empire into the Balkans introduced another cultural, political, and religious framework. The Turks defeated the Serbs at the famous battle of Kosovo in 1389. They conquered Bosnia in 1463. During the roughly 450 years Bosnia and Herzegovina were under Ottoman rule, many Christian Slavs became Muslim. A Bosnian Islamic elite gradually developed and ruled the country on behalf of the Turkish overlords. As the borders of the Ottoman Empire began to shrink in the 19th century, Muslims from elsewhere in the Balkans migrated to Bosnia. Bosnia also developed a sizable Jewish population, with many Jews settling in Sarajevo after their expulsion from Spain in 1492. However, through the 19th century the term Bosnian commonly included residents of all faiths. A relatively secular society, intermarriage among religious groups was not uncommon.

Neighboring Serbia and Montenegro fought against the Ottoman Empire in 1876 and were aided by the Russians, their fellow Slavs. At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, following the end of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), Austria-Hungary was given a mandate to occupy and govern Bosnia and Herzegovina, in an effort by Europe to ensure that Russia did not dominate the Balkans. Although the provinces were still officially part of the Ottoman Empire, they were annexed by the Austro-Hungarian Empire on Oct. 7, 1908. As a result, relations with Serbia, which had claims on Bosnia and Herzegovina, became embittered. The hostility between the two countries climaxed in the assassination of Austrian archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, by a Serbian nationalist. This event precipitated the start of World War I (1914–1918). Bosnia and Herzegovina were annexed to Serbia as part of the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes on Oct. 26, 1918. The name was later changed to Yugoslavia in 1929.

When Germany invaded Yugoslavia in 1941, Bosnia and Herzegovina were made part of Nazi-controlled Croatia. During the German and Italian occupation, Bosnian and Herzegovinian resistance fighters fought a fierce guerrilla war against the Ustachi, the Croatian Fascist troops. At the end of World War II, Bosnia and Herzegovina were reunited into a single state as one of the six republics of the newly reestablished Communist Yugoslavia under Marshall Tito. His authoritarian control kept the ethnic enmity of his patchwork nation in check. Tito died in 1980, and with growing economic dissatisfaction and the fall of the iron curtain over the next decade, Yugoslavia began to splinter.

In Dec. 1991, Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence from Yugoslavia and asked for recognition by the European Union (EU). In a March 1992 referendum, Bosnian voters chose independence, and President Alija Izetbegovic declared the nation an independent state. Unlike the other former Yugoslav states, which were generally composed of a dominant ethnic group, Bosnia was an ethnic tangle of Muslims (44%), Serbs (31%), and Croats (17%), and this mix contributed to the duration and savagery of its fight for independence.

Ethnic Antgonism Erupts in War

Both the Croatian and Serbian presidents had planned to partition Bosnia between themselves. Attempting to carve out their own enclaves, the Serbian minority, with the help of the Serbian Yugoslav army, took the offensive and laid siege, particularly on Sarajevo, and began its ruthless campaigns of ethnic cleansing, which involved the expulsion or massacre of Muslims. Croats also began carving out their own communities. By the end of Aug. 1992, rebel Bosnian Serbs had conquered over 60% of Bosnia. The war did not begin to wane until NATO stepped in, bombing Serb positions in Bosnia in Aug. and Sept. 1995. Serbs entered the UN safe havens of Tuzla, Zepa, and Srebrenica, where they murdered thousands. About 250,000 died in the war between 1992 and 1995.

U.S.-sponsored peace talks in Dayton, Ohio, led to an agreement in 1995 that called for a Muslim-Croat federation and a Serb entity within the larger federation of Bosnia. Sixty thousand NATO troops were to supervise its implementation. Fighting abated and orderly elections were held in Sept. 1996. President Izetbegovic, a Bosnian Muslim, or Bosniak, won the majority of votes to become the leader of the three-member presidency, each representing one of the three ethnic groups.

But this alliance of unreconstructed enemies had little success in creating a working government or keeping violent clashes in check. The terms of the Dec. 1995 Dayton Peace Accord were largely ignored by Bosnian Serbs, with its former president, arch-nationalist Radovan Karadzic, still in de facto control of the Serbian enclave. Many indicted war criminals, including Karadzic, remain at large. NATO proved to be a largely ineffective peacekeeping force.

After the Dayton Peace Accord, Challenges Remain

The crucial priorities facing postwar Bosnian leaders were rebuilding the economy, resettling the estimated one million refugees still displaced, and establishing a working government. Progress on these goals has been minimal, and a massive corruption scandal uncovered in 1999 severely tested the goodwill of the international community.

In 1994, the UN's International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia opened in The Hague, Netherlands. In Aug. 2001, Radislav Drstic, a Bosnian Serb general, was found guilty of genocide in the killing of up to 8,000 Bosnian Muslims in Srebrenica in 1995. It was the first genocide conviction in Europe since the UN genocide treaty was drawn up in 1951. In 2001, the trial of former Serbian president Slobodan Milosevic began. He was charged with crimes against humanity. The expensive and lengthy trial ended without a verdict when he died in March 2006.

Under pressure from Paddy Ashdown, the international administrator of Bosnia authorized under the Dayton Accord, Bosnian Serb leaders finally admitted in June 2004 that Serbian troops were responsible for the massacre of up to 8,000 Bosnian Muslims in Srebrenica in 1995. Until then, Serb leaders had refused to acknowledge guilt in the worst civilian massacre since World War II. In Feb. 2007, the International Court of Justice ruled that the massacre was genocide, but stopped short of saying Serbia was directly responsible. The decision spared Serbia from having to pay war reparations to Bosnia. The court's president, Judge Rosalyn Higgins, however, criticized Serbia for not preventing the genocide. The court also ordered Serbia to turn over Bosnian Serb leaders, including Ratko Mladic and Radovan Karakzic, who are accused of orchestrating the genocide and other crimes. Bosnians expressed disappointment with the ruling; they had demanded that Serbia pay war reparations.

In Dec. 2004, the European Union officially took over NATO's peacekeeping mission in Bosnia. It is the largest peacekeeping operation the EU has undertaken. In March 2005, Ashdown, the international administrator, sacked Dragan Covic, the Croat member of the presidency, charging him with corruption and abuse of office. Covic became the third member of the Bosnian presidency forced to resign since the tripartite presidency was established.

Small Steps Toward Inclusion in the EU

Elections in Oct. 2006 reinforced the lingering ethnic tensions in the country. The Serbian coalition, which favors an independent state, narrowly defeated the Muslim-Croat Federation that prefers moving toward a more unified country. In January 2007, Bosnian Serb Nikola Spiric took over as prime minister and formed a new government. He resigned in Nov. 2007 to protest reforms introduced by an international envoy, who was appointed under the Dayton Accords by the UN and the European Union and has the power to enact legislation and dismiss ministers. Spiric said the reforms, which the EU said would help the country's entrance into the organization, would diminish the influence of Bosnian Serbs and enhance those of other ethnic groups. Crisis was averted later in November, when Spiric and the country's Croat and Muslim leaders agreed on a series of reforms approved by Parliament.

On July 21, 2008, Radovan Karadzic, the Bosnian Serb president during the war in Bosnia in the 1990s, was charged with genocide, persecution, deportation, and other crimes against non-Serb civilians. Karadzic orchestrated the massacre of almost 8,000 Muslim men and boys in 1995 in Srebrenica. He was found outside Belgrade. The arrest will likely bring Serbia closer to joining the European Union.

Since the presidential and parliamentary elections in 2010, Bosnia had been in a political deadlock, without a government. In Dec. 2011, the Bosniak, Serb and Croatian communities successfully produced a government, bringing the country a little closer to EU membership.

See also Encyclopedia: Bosnia and Herzegovina
U.S. State Dept. Country Notes: Bosnia and Herzegovina
Agency for Statistics www.bhas.ba/ .

Bhutan

Map of Bhutan Kingdom of Bhutan Ruler: King Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchukin (2006) Prime Minister: Lyonpo Jigme Thinley (2008) Total area: 18,147 sq mi (47,000 sq km) Population (2010 est.): 699,847 (growth rate: 1.2%); birth rate: 19.2/1000; infant mortality rate: 46.92/1000; life expectancy: 66.7; density per sq km: 50 Capital and largest city (2003 est.):Thimphu (official), 60,200 Monetary unit: Ngultrum Current government officials Languages: Dzongkha (official), Tibetan dialects (among Bhotes), Nepalese dialects (among Nepalese) Ethnicity/race: Bhote 50%, ethnic Nepalese 35%, indigenous or migrant tribes 15% National Holiday: National Day, December 17 Religions: Lamaistic Buddhist 75%, Indian- and Nepalese-influenced Hinduism 25% Literacy rate: 47% (2003 est.) Economic summary: GDP/PPP (2009 est.): $3.763 billion; per capita $5,400.Real growth rate: 5%. Inflation: 8%Unemployment: 4% (2009 est.)Arable land: 3%. Agriculture: rice, corn, root crops, citrus, foodgrains; dairy products, eggs. Labor force:n.a.; note: major shortage of skilled labor; agriculture 93%, industry and commerce 2%, services 5%.Industries: cement, wood products, processed fruits, alcoholic beverages, calcium carbide. Natural resources:timber, hydropower, gypsum, calcium carbide. Exports: $513 million f.o.b. (2008 est.): electricity (to India), cardamom, gypsum, timber, handicrafts, cement, fruit, precious stones, spices. Imports: $533 million (2008 est.): fuel and lubricants, grain, machinery and parts, vehicles, fabrics, rice. Major trading partners: India, Bangladesh, Japan, Germany, Austria (2004). Communications: Telephones: main lines in use: 25,200 (2003); mobile cellular: 22,000 (2005). Radio broadcast stations: AM 0, FM 1, shortwave 1 (2004). Television broadcast stations: 1 (2005). Internet hosts: 985 (2003). Internet users:15,000 (2003). Transportation: Railways: 0 km.Highways: total: 4,007 km; paved: 24 km; unpaved: 3,983 km (2002). Ports and harbors: none. Airports: 2 (2004 est.). International disputes: approximately 104,000 Bhutanese refugees live in Nepal, 90% of whom reside in seven UN Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees camps; Bhutan cooperates with India to expel Indian separatists. Major sources and definitions

Geography

Mountainous Bhutan, half the size of Indiana, is situated on the southeast slope of the Himalayas, bordered on the north and east by Tibet and on the south and west and east by India. The landscape consists of a succession of lofty and rugged mountains and deep valleys. In the north, towering peaks reach a height of 24,000 ft (7,315 m).

Government

Bhutan's first national elections in March 2008 marked the country's shift from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy.

History

Although archaeological exploration of Bhutan has been limited, evidence of civilization in the region dates back to at least 2000 B.C.Aboriginal Bhutanese, known as Monpa, are believed to have migrated from Tibet. The traditional name of the country since the 17th century has been Drukyul, Land of the Drokpa (Dragon People), a reference to the dominant branch of Tibetan Buddhism that is still practiced in the Himalayan kingdom.

For centuries, Bhutan was made up of feuding regions until it was unified under King Ugyen Wangchuck in 1907. The British exerted some control over Bhutan's affairs, but never colonized it. Until the 1960s, Bhutan was largely isolated from the rest of the world, and its people carried on a tranquil, traditional way of life, farming and trading, which had remained intact for centuries. After China invaded Tibet, however, Bhutan strengthened its ties and contact with India in an effort to avoid Tibet's fate. New roads and other connections to India began to end its isolation. In the 1960s, Bhutan also undertook social modernization, abolishing slavery and the caste system, emancipating women, and enacting land reform. In 1985, Bhutan made its first diplomatic links with non-Asian countries.

A pro-democracy campaign emerged in 1991, which the government claimed was composed largely of Nepali immigrants. As a result, some 100,000 Nepali civil servants were either evicted or encouraged to emigrate. Most of them crossed the border back into Nepal, where they were housed in UN-administered refugee camps. They continue to languish there a decade later.

In 1998, King Jigme Singye Wangchuck, who is Bhutan's fourth hereditary ruler, voluntarily curtailed his absolute monarchy, and in March 2005 released a draft constitution (not yet put to a referendum) that outlined plans for the country to shift to a two-party democracy. In Dec. 2006, he abdicated in favor of his son, and Crown Prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchukin became king. Prime Minister Lyonpo Khandu Wangchuk resigned in July 2007 so he could join a political party in anticipation of the country's first elections, scheduled to be held in early 2008. Lyonpo Kinzang Dorji took over as the interim prime minister.

Shift to a Constitutional Monarchy

Parliamentary elections, Bhutan's first national election, were held in March 2008, with turnout at about 80%. The pro-monarchy Druk Phuensum Tshogpa, translated as the Bhutan Peace and Prosperity Party, won 44 out of 47 seats in Parliament, trouncing the People’s Democratic Party. The election marked Bhutan's transition from an absolute monarchy to a democracy. In April, Lyonpo Jigme Thinley, of the Peace and Prosperity Party, became prime minister. A new constitution went into effect in July. Universal suffrage was implemented under the new constitution. Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck was crowned king in November. At age 28, he is the world's youngest monarch. Jigme studied in India and the U.S. and received a master's degree in international relations from Oxford.

See also Encyclopedia: Bhutan.
U.S. State Dept. Country Notes: Bhutan

Belgium

Map of Belgium Kingdom of Belgium Sovereign: King Albert II (1993) Prime Minister: Elio Di Rupo (2011) Land area: 11,672 sq mi (30,230 sq km); total area: 11,787 sq mi (30,528 sq km) Population (2011 est.): 10,431,477 (growth rate: 0.071%); birth rate: 10.06/1000; infant mortality rate: 4.33/1000; life expectancy: 79.51 Capital and largest city (2003 est.):Brussels, 1.892 million Other large city:Antwerp 961,000 (2009) Monetary unit: Euro (formerly Belgian franc) National name: Royaume de Belgique—Koninkrijk België Current government officials Languages: Dutch (Flemish) 60%, French 40%, German less than 1% (all official) Ethnicity/race: Fleming 58%, Walloon 31%, mixed or other 11% Religion: Roman Catholic 75%, Protestant or other 25% National Holiday: Ascension to the Throne of King Leopold I, July 21 Literacy rate: 99% (2003 est.) Economic summary: GDP/PPP$394.3 billion; per capita $37,800.Real growth rate: 2%. Inflation:2.3%. Unemployment: 8.3%. Arable land: 27.42%. Agriculture: sugar beets, fresh vegetables, fruits, grain, tobacco; beef, veal, pork, milk. Labor force: 5.114 million (2010 est.); agriculture 2%, industry 25%, services 73% (2007 est.). Industries:engineering and metal products, motor vehicle assembly, transportation equipment, scientific instruments, processed food and beverages, chemicals, basic metals, textiles, glass, petroleum. Natural resources:construction materials, silica sand, carbonates. Exports: $282.3 billion (2010 est.): machinery and equipment, chemicals, diamonds, metals and metal products, foodstuffs. Imports:$284.6 billion (2010 est.): machinery and equipment, chemicals, diamonds, pharmaceuticals, foodstuffs, transportation equipment, oil products.Major trading partners: Germany, France, Netherlands, UK, U.S., Italy, Ireland, China (2010). Communications: Telephones: main lines in use: 4.64 million (2010); mobile cellular: 12.154 million (2010).Broadcast media: a segmented market with the three major communities (Flemish, French, and German-speaking) each having responsibility for their own broadcast media; multiple TV channels exist for each community; additionally, in excess of 90% of households are connected to cable and can access broadcasts of TV stations from neighboring countries; each community has a public radio network co-existing with private broadcasters (2007).Internet hosts: 4.465 million (2010).Internet users: 8.113 million (2009). Transportation: Railways: total: 3,233 km (2,950 km electrified) (2010).Highways: total: 153,595 km; paved: 120,111 km (includes 1,763 km of expressways); unpaved: 33,484 km (2008). Waterways: 2,043 km (1,528 km in regular commercial use) (2010).Ports and terminals: cargo ports (tonnage): Antwerp, Gent, Liege, Zeebrugge; container ports (TEUs): Antwerp (8,662,891), Zeebrugge (2,209,715); Airports: 43 (2010). International disputes: none. Major sources and definitions

Geography

Located in western Europe, Belgium has about 40 mi of seacoast on the North Sea, at the Strait of Dover, and is approximately the size of Maryland. The Meuse and the Schelde, Belgium's principal rivers, are important commercial arteries.

Government

Parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarch. Under the 1994 constitution, autonomy was granted to the Walloon region (Wallonia), the Flemish region (Flanders), and the bilingual Brussels-Capital region; autonomy was also guaranteed for the Flemish-, French-, and German-speaking “communities.” The central government retains responsibility for foreign policy, defense, taxation, and social security.

History

Belgium occupies part of the Roman province of Belgica, named after the Belgae, a people of ancient Gaul. The area was conquered by Julius Caesar in 57–50 B.C., then was overrun by the Franks in the 5th century A.D. It was part of Charlemagne's empire in the 8th century, then in the next century was absorbed into Lotharingia and later into the duchy of Lower Lorraine. In the 12th century, Belgium was partitioned into the duchies of Brabant and Luxembourg, the bishopric of Liège, and the domain of the count of Hainaut, which included Flanders. In the 15th century, most of the Low Countries (currently the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg) passed to the duchy of Burgundy and were subsequently inherited by Emperor Charles V. When the latter abdicated in 1555, the territories went to his son Philippe II, king of Spain. While the northern part, now the Netherlands, gained its independence in the following decades, the southern part remained under Spanish control until 1713, when it was transferred to Austria. During the wars that followed the French Revolution, Belgium was occupied and later annexed to France. But with the downfall of Napoléon, the Congress of Vienna in 1815 reunited the Low Countries under the rule of the king of Holland. In 1830, Belgium rebelled against Dutch rule and declared independence, which was approved by Europe at the London Conference of 1830–1831.

Germany's invasion of Belgium in 1914 set off World War I. The Treaty of Versailles (1919) gave the areas of Eupen, Malmédy, and Moresnet to Belgium. Leopold III succeeded Albert, king during World War I, in 1934. In World War II, Belgium was overwhelmed by Nazi Germany, and Leopold III was held prisoner. When he returned at the government’s invitation in 1950 after a narrowly favorable referendum, riots broke out in several cities. He abdicated on July 16, 1951, and his son, Baudouin, became king. Because of growing opposition to Belgian rule in its African colonies, Belgium granted independence to the Congo (now Democratic Republic of the Congo) in 1960 and to Ruanda-Urundi (now the nations of Rwanda and Burundi) in 1962.

Since 1958, when the European Economic Community was born, Brussels, the country’s capital, has gradually established itself as the de facto capital of what has now become the European Union (EU), a role that became official in Dec. 2000 when the European Council of heads of government decided to hold all its regular meetings in Brussels. As a result, the city has become home not only to nearly 20,000 European civil servants, but to an even more numerous community of lobbyists, lawyers, and other professionals drawn to the EU’s main decision center.

Growing divisions between Flemings and Walloons, and devolution along linguistic lines, culminated in the revised constitution of 1994, which turned Belgium into a federal state with significant autonomy for its three regions and its three language “communities.”

A Decade of Scandals Leads to Reform

In the 1990s Belgium’s public life was shaken by a number of serious scandals. In 1991, a former deputy prime minister and socialist leader was murdered in a contract killing that took several years to come to light. The Dutroux child-sex-and-murder affair in 1996 led to national outrage, compounded by the realization that less official negligence and inefficiency could have saved the lives of several children. The tragedy fueled pressure for reform of the political, judicial, and police systems. In 1998, along with two other major Belgian politicians, former NATO secretary-general Willy Claes was convicted of bribery. In 1999, a public health scandal involving dioxin, a cancer-causing chemical, resulted in the unexpected electoral defeat of Christian-Democratic prime minister Jean-Luc Dehaene.

In June 1999, the new prime minister, Guy Verhofstadt of the Liberal Party, cobbled together a coalition of liberals, socialists, and greens, which was continued, without the green parties, after the May 2003 election. His government passed extremely liberal social policies, including the legalization of gay marriage and euthanasia and the partial decriminalization of marijuana. Against the wishes of the prime minister’s party, a parliamentary majority also extended voting rights at local elections to all foreign residents.

Government Unable to Bridge Linguistic Divide

Prime Minister Verhofstadt resigned in June 2007, after his coalition of liberals and socialists took a drubbing in a general election. He remained in office as caretaker prime minister for more than six months, however, as talks between Flemish-speaking and French-speaking parties on forming a government reached a deadlock, leaving the country in political crisis. At King Albert II's request, Verhofstadt formed an interim coalition government in December 2007.

On March 20, 2008, Yves Leterme was sworn in as prime minister, ending the political crisis that spanned nine months. A new government was formed and includes both Flemish and French-speaking democrats, liberals, and socialists.

After months of unsuccessful negotiations, Belgium's enduring linguistic divide led to the resignation of Prime Minister Leterme on July 14, 2008. King Albert II did not immediately accept his resignation, leaving the government again in a caretaker's hands. The king accepted the resignation on December 22, 2008, and on December 28, asked Herman Van Rompuy to form a new cabinet. Parliament gave Van Rompuy's new government a vote of confidence (88-45) in January 2009. Van Rompuy stepped down in November to become President of the European Council. Leterme returned for another term as prime minister. He set to work on reviving the economy and reducing unemployment.

Leterme's government collapsed in April 2010 when the liberal Open VLD party bolted from the coalition in yet another conflict between Flemish and French speakers. The movement to break up Belgium gained steam in June's parliamentary elections when the separatist New Flemish Alliance party won the most seats.

First French Speaker to Lead New Government

After a record 541 days in the hands of a caretaker administration, Belgium was prompted by Europe's debt crisis to finally form a new government. Elio di Rupo, a Socialist from the Walloon (French-speaking) community took the prime minister's office on Dec. 6, 2011. Di Rupo, 60, became Belgium's first French-speaking prime minister in three decades and the first Socialist to assume the post since 1974.

See also Encyclopedia: Belgium.
U.S. State Dept. Country Notes: Belgium
National Institute of Statistics www.statbel.fgov.be/ .

Belarus

Map of Belarus Republic of Belarus President: Alyaksandr Lukashenka (since 1994) Prime Minister: Mikhail Myasnikovich (since 2010) Total area: 80,154 sq mi (207,600 sq km) Population (2010 est.): 9,612,632 (growth rate: &ndaqsh;0.3%); birth rate: 9.7/1000; infant mortality rate: 6.3/1000; life expectancy: 70.9; density per sq km: 46 Capital and largest city (2003 est.):Mensk (Minsk), 1,769,500 Other large cities: Gomel, 502,200; Mogilyov, 374,000; Vitebsk, 355,800; Grodno, 314,100; Brest, 306,300; Bobruysk, 228,100 Monetary unit: Belorussian ruble National Name: Respublika Byelarus' Current government officials Languages: Belorussian (White Russian), Russian, other Ethnicity/race: Belorussian 81.2%, Russian 11.4%, Polish 3.9%, Ukrainian 2.4%, other 1.1% (1999) Religion: Eastern Orthodox 80%, other (including Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, and Muslim) 20% (1997 est.) National Holiday: Independence Day, July 3 Literacy rate: 100% (2003 est.) Economic summary: GDP/PPP (2009 est.): $116 billion; per capita $11,600.Real growth rate: –0.2%. Inflation:10%. Unemployment: 1% (2009 est.) officially registered unemployed; large number of underemployed workers.Arable land: 26.77%. Agriculture:grain, potatoes, vegetables, sugar beets, flax; beef, milk. Labor force:4.3 million (Dec. 31, 2005); agriculture 14%, industry 34.7%, services 51.3% (2003 est.). Industries: metal-cutting machine tools, tractors, trucks, earthmovers, motorcycles, televisions, chemical fibers, fertilizer, textiles, radios, refrigerators. Natural resources: forests, peat deposits, small quantities of oil and natural gas, granite, dolomitic limestone, marl, chalk, sand, gravel, clay. Exports:$24.8 billion f.o.b. (2009 est.): machinery and equipment, mineral products, chemicals, metals, textiles, foodstuffs. Imports: $30.4 billion f.o.b. (2009 est.): mineral products, machinery and equipment, chemicals, foodstuffs, metals. Major trading partners: Russia, UK, Netherlands, Poland, Germany, Ukraine (2004). Communications: Telephones: main lines in use: 3,368,000 (2006); mobile cellular: 2,239,300 (2004). Radio broadcast stations: AM 28, FM 37, shortwave 11 (1998). Television broadcast stations: 47 (plus 27 repeaters) (1995). Internet hosts:20,973 (2005). Internet users: 1.6 million (2005). Transportation: Railways: total: 5,512 km (2004). Highways: total: 79,990 km; paved: 69,351 km; unpaved: 10,639 km (2004).Waterways: 2,500 km (use limited by location on perimeter of country and by shallowness) (2003). Ports and harbors: Mazyr. Airports: 101 (2005). International disputes: 1997 boundary treaty with Ukraine remains unratified over unresolved financial claims, preventing demarcation and diminishing border security; the whole boundary with Latvia and more than half the boundary with Lithuania remains undemarcated; discussions toward economic and political union with Russia proceed slowly Major sources and definitions

Geography

Much of Belarus (formerly the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic of the USSR, and then Byelorussia) is a hilly lowland with forests, swamps, and numerous rivers and lakes. There are wide rivers emptying into the Baltic and Black seas. Its forests cover over one-third of the land and its peat marshes are a valuable natural resource. The largest lake is Narach, 31 sq mi (79.6 sq km).

Government

Republic.

History

In the 5th century A.D., Belarus (also known as White Russia) was colonized by east Slavic tribes. Kiev dominated it from the 9th to 12th century. After the destruction of Kiev by the Mongols in the 13th century, the territory was conquered by the dukes of Lithuania, although it retained a degree of autonomy. Belarus became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which merged with Poland in 1569. Following the partitions of Poland in 1772, 1793, and 1795, in which Poland was divided among Russia, Prussia, and Austria, Belarus became part of the Russian empire.

Following World War I, Belarus proclaimed itself a republic, only to find itself occupied by the Red Army soon after its March 1918 announcement. The Polish-Soviet War of 1918–1921 was fought to decide the fate of Belarus. West Belarus was ceded to Poland; the larger eastern part formed the Belorussian SSR, and was then joined to the USSR in 1922. In 1939, the Soviet Union took back West Belarus from Poland under the secret protocol of the Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact and incorporated it into the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. Occupied by the Nazis in World War II, Belarus was one of the war's most devastated battlefields.

When the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine exploded in 1986, 70% of its radioactive fallout fell on the Belorussian SSR. Cancer and other illnesses have multiplied as a result.

Expanded Presidential Power Leads to Oppression and Corruption

Belarus declared its sovereignty in July 1990 and its independence in Aug. 1991. It became a cofounder of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in Dec. 1991. In Jan. 1994, the country's parliament ousted its reform-minded leader, Stanislav Shushkevich, in protest against his support for market economics. He was replaced by Alyaksandr Lukashenka, who, over the next two years, greatly expanded the powers of the presidency. Lukashenka sought to renew ties with Russia, and, with much fanfare, Belarus and Russia signed a treaty in April 1997 aimed at significantly increasing cooperation between the two states, stopping just short of union. The Russian financial crisis that began in fall 1998 severely affected Belarus's Soviet-style planned economy.

The EU and the U.S. have denounced the increasingly oppressive political atmosphere and human rights violations in Belarus under the Soviet-style authoritarianism of President Lukashenka. In 1999, the year Lukashenka was to step down, he rigged a national referendum allowing him to cancel the elections and remain president. Lukashenka's government has been accused of running a death squad that has killed dozens, including opposition party members and underworld figures. After harassing the opposition and curtailing their campaign activities, Lukashenka won reelection in the Sept. 9, 2001, presidential race. In 2004, the Council of Europe strongly criticized the Belarus government for blocking investigation into the disappearance of four dissidents in 1999 and 2000.

Presidential elections in March 2006 reelected Lukashenka with 83% of the vote. Supporters of opposition candidates took to the streets of Minsk to protest the results. The police cracked down on the demonstrations and arrested dozens. The U.S. and other Western nations declared the election fraudulent, and the EU imposed economic sanctions on Lukashenka and a number of his ministers.

Relationship With Russia Is Tested

Despite the close ties of Russia and Belarus, the two countries clashed over imported Russian gas in early 2007. In Dec. 2006, Russia doubled the price of gas it exported to Belarus, and then imposed a large duty on oil exports. In response, Belarus imposed a tax on Russian gas in Jan. 2007. Russia then shut off an oil export pipeline to Europe (which spelled trouble for Europe, since half of all European exports of Russian gas are transported through Belarus). By mid-January, Russia agreed to cut its oil duty and Belarus agreed to cut its tax.

In September 2008, President Alyaksandr Lukashenka won all 110 seats in parliamentary elections, but European monitors criticized the flawed counting system in Belarus.

Lukashenka's Reelection Causes Protest and Controversy

On December 19, 2010, Alyaksandr Lukashenka, president since 1994, was reelected. According to government officials, he won by 79.7% of the vote. Andrey Sannikau was his closest challenger with 2.6% and voter turnout was 90.7%. On the day of the election, two presidential candidates were beaten by police while attending different opposition rallies. One of the candidates, Uladzimir Niaklajeu, was taken to a hospital where he was treated for a head injury. While in intensive care, he was abducted by Belarusian authorities. On the night of the election, ten thousand opposition protesters attempted to storm the government building of Belarus, smashing windows before police pushed them back.

On December 27, 2010, Prime Minister Syarhey Sidorski and his cabinet resigned. The next day, Lukashenka named Mikhail Myasnikovich as prime minister. The European Union along with the United States imposed sanctions on Belarus officials after the election and promised aid to opposition groups seeking to oust Lukashenka. Lukashenka has been referred to as Europe's last dictator.

In April 2011, a bomb exploded in a subway station next to Lukashenka's office. The explosion killed 12 people, wounded 150 others and strained an already tense political situation. No one claimed responsibility for the bomb. Lukashenka reported two days later that two suspects had confessed to the crime, but no other details were given.

Russia Bails Out Lukashenka While Protests Continue

In June 2011, Russia agreed to loan Belarus three billion dollars, which will be disbursed over three years. In exchange for the loan, Russian officials demanded that Belarus sell its factories to Russian companies, thus privatizing much of its state-owned industries. In providing the loan, Russia also bailed out President Alyaksandr Lukashenka whose already shaky popularity took a severe hit when the Belarusian ruble was devalued in the spring of 2011, which caused long lines for common goods like oil and sugar.

In the summer of 2011, at least 1,830 people were detained by police for antigovernment protests involving cell phones and hand claps. The arrests started when a small group of activists started clapping protests. At least 500 people have been sentenced to 5--–15 days. The financial crisis continues in Belarus where people have started hoarding food and converting their assets into currency, but this round of protests involved mainly young people who want more freedom.

In November 2011, Russia agreed on a gas deal that gave Belarus more than $14 billion in loans and discounts on natural gas. In return, Belarus gave full control of Yamal-Europe, its natural gas pipeline, which runs to Europe, to Gazprom, a Russian energy company. Before the deal, Gazprom owned 50 percent of the pipeline. Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin said that the deal and Gazprom's control of the pipeline from Siberia to the border of Poland will "ease relations with Belarus for years to come."

Political Prisoner Receives Early Release

On April 14 2012, Andrei Sannikov, a former presidential candidate, was released early from prison. Sannikov told a local website, Charter 97, that he had been pardoned by President Lukashenka. Sannikov, who once served as deputy foreign minister, was arrested in December 2010 after taking part in a protest. He was convicted of organizing unrest and sentenced to five years in prison. About his early release, Sannikov said to Charter 97, "Until the last minute I did not believe they would free me. They transferred me so many times from one prison to another that I thought it was just the next stage."

Sannikov's early release came after the European Union's recent increase in sanctions against Lukashenka's government. In March 2012, members of the European Union removed their ambassadors from Belarus and imposed a ban on travel for the country's top officials. In retaliation, Lukashenka barred several political opponents, journalists and human rights workers from leaving Belarus.

See also Encyclopedia: Belarus.
U.S. State Dept. Country Notes: Belarus
Ministry of Statistics and Analysis president.gov.by/Minstat/en/main.html .

Bahrain

Map of Bahrain Kingdom of Bahrain King: Hamad ibn Isa al-Khalifah (1999) Prime Minister: Khalifah ibn Sulman al-Khalifah (1970) Land area: 239 sq mi (619 sq km);total area: 257 sq mi (665 sq km) Population (2010 est.): 738,004 (growth rate: 1.2%); birth rate: 16.8/1000; infant mortality rate: 14.7/1000; life expectancy: 75.4; density per sq km: 1,080 Capital and largest city (2003 est.):Al-Manámah, 527,000 (metro area), 149,900 (city proper) Monetary unit: Bahrain dinar National Name: Mamlakat al Bahrayn Current government officials Languages: Arabic, English, Farsi, Urdu Ethnicity/race: Bahraini 62.4%, non-Bahraini 37.6% (2001) Religion: Islam (Shiite and Sunni) 81%, Christian 9% National Holiday: National Day, December 16 Literacy rate: 89% (2003 est.) Economic summary: GDP/PPP (2009 est): $28.0 billion; per capita $38,400.Real growth rate: 2.9%. Inflation:3%. Unemployment: 15%. Arable land: 2.82%. Agriculture: fruit, vegetables; poultry, dairy products; shrimp, fish. Labor force: 380,000; note: 44% of the population in the 15–64 age group is non-national; agriculture 1%, industry, commerce, and services 79%, government 20% (1997 est.). Industries: petroleum processing and refining, aluminum smelting, iron pelletization, fertilizers, offshore banking, ship repairing, tourism. Natural resources: oil, associated and nonassociated natural gas, fish, pearls. Exports: $12.5 billion (2009 est.): petroleum and petroleum products, aluminum, textiles. Imports:$10.37 billion (2009 est.): crude oil, machinery, chemicals. Major trading partners: Saudi Arabia, U.S., UAE, Japan, Germany, UK, France (2004). Communications: Telephones: main lines in use: 191,600 (2004); mobile cellular: 649,800 (2004). Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 0 (1998). Television broadcast stations: 4 (1997). Internet hosts: 1,952 (2005). Internet users:152,700 (2005). Transportation: Railways: 0 km.Highways: total: 3,498 km; paved: 2,768 km; unpaved: 730 km (2003).Ports and harbors: Mina' Salman, Sitrah. Airports: 3 (2005). International disputes: none. Major sources and definitions

Geography

Bahrain, which means “two seas,” is an archipelago in the Persian Gulf off the coast of Saudi Arabia. The islands for the most part are level expanses of sand and rock. A causeway connects Bahrain to Saudi Arabia.

Government

Constitutional monarchy.

History

Known in ancient times as Dilmun, Bahrain was an important center of trade by the 3rd millennium B.C. The islands were ruled by the Persians in the 4th century A.D., and then by Arabs until 1541, when the Portuguese invaded them. Persia again claimed Bahrain in 1602. In 1783 Ahmad ibn al-Khalifah took over, and the al-Khalifahs remain the ruling family today. Bahrain became a British protectorate in 1820. It did not gain full independence until Aug. 14, 1971.

Although oil was discovered in Bahrain in the 1930s, it was relatively little compared to other Gulf states, and the wells are expected to be the first in the region to dry up. Sheik Isa ibn Sulman al-Khalifah, who became emir in 1961, was determined to diversify his country's economy, and he set about establishing Bahrain as a major financial center. The country provides its people with free medical care, education, and old-age pensions.

Conflicts between the Shiite and Sunni Muslims are a recurring problem in Bahrain. The Sunni minority, to which the ruling al-Khalifah family belongs, controls nearly all the power and wealth in the country. the Shiites continue to agitate for more representation in government, and minor violent clashes have led to about two dozen deaths since 1994.

Internal Reforms Increase Bahrain's Attractiveness as an Ally to the West

Bahrain has been an important Western ally, serving as a Western air base during the Persian Gulf War in 1991 and the Iraq War in 2003. It continues to serve as the base of the United States' Fifth Fleet, which patrols the Gulf.

The emir, Sheik Isa ibn Sulman al-Khalifah, died in 1999 after four decades of rule. He was succeeded by his son, Sheik Hamad ibn Isa al-Khalifah, who gave himself the title of king but also began a sweeping democratization of the country: censorship has been relaxed and draconian laws repealed, exiles have been repatriated, and the stateless Bidoons have been granted citizenship. In a Feb. 2001 referendum, which permitted women to vote for the first time, Bahrainis overwhelmingly supported the transformation of the traditional monarchy into a constitutional one. In Oct. 2002, Bahrain had its first parliamentary election since 1973. In 2006, the U.S. and Bahrain signed a free-trade agreement.

Political Unrest in the Middle East Spreads to Bahrain

Anti-government demonstrations gripped several countries in the Middle East in early 2011, and Bahrain experienced some of the most violent confrontations between protesters and government forces and police. The protesters, inspired by recent events in Egypt and Tunisia, began their protests on Feb. 14. There has long been simmering tension between the populace, which is 70% Shiite, and the Sunni monarchy and ruling class. Shiites complain that they are excluded from top positions in the military and government and claim that the government encourages immigration of Sunnis and then gives Sunnis preference in hiring. In response to the protests, King Hamad offered each Bahraini a payment of about $2,700 and promised to increase jobs, which only emboldened the opposition. On Feb. 17, police fired on the demonstrators in Manama's Pearl Square, killing at least two people, and during the funeral the next day, government forces attacked mourners. The attacks drew a strong rebuke from the U.S., which bases the navy's Fifth Fleet in Bahrain and stations troops in the country.

The government withdrew troops on Feb. 18, and for the next several days thousands of triumphant protesters poured into Pearl Square. Crowds reached their peak on Feb. 22, with more than 100,000 protesters gathered in the square. The enormous pro-democracy protests continued for three weeks, but the euphoria was short lived. On March 14, at the request of King Hamad, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates dispatched 2,000 troops to help break up the protests. The presence of neighboring Sunni troops in a country populated by a majority of Shiites further inflamed sectarian strife. The Shiites labeled the deployment an "invasion." When violence broke out between protesters and troops, King Hamad declared martial law and resumed implementing repressive tactics against the opposition, including using force to remove protesters from Pearl Square, warrantless searches, mass arrests, and there were allegations of torture. King Hamad lifted the state of emergency on June 1, but the country remained tense and on the brink of violence.

In June King Hamad appointed an independent commission to investigate the crackdown by his security forces on protesters. The report released in November found widespread human-rights abuses, saying prisoners—mostly Shia—were hooded, whipped, beaten, and given electric-shock treatment. Five prisoners died in custody. While the report was an embarrassment to the government and highly critical, it proved that the king followed up on his promise to fairly and fully investigate the allegations of abuse. Hamad said the perpetrators will be fired.

See also Encyclopedia: Bahrain.
U.S. State Dept. Country Notes: Bahrain

Bahamas

Map of Bahamas Commonwealth of the Bahamas Sovereign: Queen Elizabeth II (1952) Governor-General: Sir Arthur Foulkes (2010) Prime Minister: Perry Christie (2012) Land area: 3,888 sq mi (10,070 sq km); total area: 5,382 sq mi 13,940 sq km) Population (2010 est.): 310,426 (growth rate: 0.9%); birth rate: 16.25/1000; infant mortality rate: 13.6/1000; life expectancy: 70.8; density per sq km: 30 Capital and largest city (2003 est.):Nassau, 222,200 Monetary unit: Bahamian dollar Current government officials Languages: English (official), Creole (among Haitian immigrants) Ethnicity/race: black 85%, white 12%, Asian and Hispanic 3% Religions: Baptist 35%, Anglican 15%, Roman Catholic 14%, Pentecostal 8%, Church of God 5%, Methodist 4%, other Christian 15% (2000) National Holiday: Independence Day, July 10 Literacy rate: 95.6% (2003 est.) Economic summary: GDP/PPP (2009 est.): $9.084 billion; per capita $29,800. Real growth rate: -4%.Inflation: 2.4% (2007 est.).Unemployment: 7.6%. Arable land:0.58%. Agriculture: citrus, vegetables; poultry. Labor force:176,300 (2004); agriculture 5%, industry 5%, tourism 50%, other services 40% (2005 est.). Industries:tourism, banking, cement, oil transshipment, salt, rum, aragonite, pharmaceuticals, spiral-welded steel pipe. Natural resources: salt, aragonite, timber, arable land. Exports:$674 million (2006 est.): mineral products and salt, animal products, rum, chemicals, fruit and vegetables.Imports: $2.4 billion (2006 est.): machinery and transport equipment, manufactures, chemicals, mineral fuels; food and live animals. Major trading partners: U.S., Poland, Spain, Germany, France, South Korea, Brazil, Japan, Italy, Venezuela (2004). Member of Commonwealth of Nations Communications: Telephones: main lines in use: 139,900 (2004); mobile cellular: 186,000 (2004). Radio broadcast stations: AM 3, FM 5, shortwave 0 (2006). Television broadcast stations: 2 (2006). Internet hosts: 359 (2005). Internet users:93,000 (2005). Transportation: Railways: 0 km.Highways: total: 2,693 km; paved: 1,546 km; unpaved: 1,147 km (1999).Ports and harbors: Freeport, Nassau, South Riding Point. Airports: 64 (2005). International disputes: disagrees with the US on the alignment of the maritime boundary; continues to monitor and interdict Haitian refugees fleeing economic privation and political instability . Major sources and definitions

Geography

The Bahamas are an archipelago of about 700 islands and 2,400 uninhabited islets and cays lying 50 mi off the east coast of Florida. They extend for about 760 mi (1,223 km). Only about 30 of the islands are inhabited; the most important is New Providence (80 sq mi; 207 sq km), on which the capital, Nassau, is situated. Other islands include Grand Bahama, Abaco, Eleuthera, Andros, Cat Island, and San Salvador (or Watling's Island).

Government

Parliamentary democracy.

History

The Arawak Indians were the first inhabitants of the Bahamas. Columbus's first encounter with the New World was on Oct. 12, 1492, when he landed on the Bahamian island of San Salvador. The British first built settlements on the islands in the 17th century. In the early 18th century, the Bahamas were a favorite pirate haunt.

The Bahamas were a Crown colony from 1717 until they were granted internal self-government in 1964. The islands moved toward greater autonomy in 1968 after the overwhelming victory in general elections of the Progressive Liberal Party, led by Prime Minister Lynden O. Pindling, over the predominantly white United Bahamians Party. With its new mandate from the black population (85% of Bahamians), Pindling's government negotiated a new constitution with Britain under which the colony became the Commonwealth of the Bahama Islands in 1969. On July 10, 1973, the Bahamas became an independent nation.

An Emerging Economy

Once heavily reliant on agriculture and fishing, the Bahamas has diversified its economy into tourism, financial services, and international shipping. While the nation enjoys a per capita income that is among the top 30 in the world, there is a big gap between the urban middle class and poor farmers. In addition, the nation is vulnerable to hurricanes, which regularly inflict serious damage.

Hubert Ingraham became prime minister in May 2007 after his Free National Movement, an opposition party, won parliamentary elections. As of 2012, the Bahamas remains one of the wealthiest countries (GDP per capita) in the Americas, after Bermuda, the U.S., the Cayman Islands, Canada, and the Virgin Islands.

New Prime Minister Elected

On May 7, 2012, parliamentary elections were held. The Progressive Liberal Party took 29 of the 38 seats. Progressive Liberal Party member Perry Christie was sworn in as prime minister and finance minister. Christie served one prior term as prime minister from 2002 to 2007.

See also Encyclopedia: Bahamas.
U.S. State Dept. Country Notes: The Bahamas

Austria

Map of Austria Republic of Austria President: Heinz Fischer (2004) Chancellor: Werner Faymann (2008) Land area: 31,942 sq mi (82,730 sq km); total area: 32,382 sq mi (83,870 sq km) Population (2010 est.): 8,214,160 (growth rate: 0.04%); birth rate 8.6/1000; infant mortality rate: 4.3/1000; life expectancy: 79.6; density per sq mi: 257 Capital and largest city (2003 est.):Vienna, 2,041,300 (metro area), 1,523,600 (city proper) Other large cities: Graz, 219,500; Linz, 185,300; Salzburg, 145,500; Innsbruck, 115,600 Monetary units: Euro (formerly schilling) National name: Republik Österreich Current government officials Languages: German (official nationwide); Slovene, Croatian, Hungarian (each official in one region) Ethnicity/race: Austrians 91.1%, former Yugoslavs 4% (includes Croatians, Slovenes, Serbs, Bosniaks), Turks 1.6%, German 0.9%, other or unspecified 2.4% (2001) Religions: Roman Catholic 74%, Protestant 5%, Islam 4%, none 12% (2001) National Holiday: National Day, October 26 Literacy rate: 98% Economic summary: GDP/PPP (2009 est.): $323.1 billion; per capita $39,400. Real growth rate: -3.5%.Inflation: 0.4%. Unemployment:4.7%. Arable land: 16.59%.Agriculture: grains, potatoes, sugar beets, wine, fruit; dairy products, cattle, pigs, poultry; lumber. Labor force: 3.56 million (2007 est.); agriculture and forestry 3%, industry and crafts 27%, services 70%.Industries: construction, machinery, vehicles and parts, food, metals, chemicals, lumber and wood processing, paper and paperboard, communications equipment, tourism.Natural resources: oil, coal, lignite, timber, iron ore, copper, zinc, antimony, magnesite, tungsten, graphite, salt, hydropower. Exports:$129 billion f.o.b. (2009 est.): machinery and equipment, motor vehicles and parts, paper and paperboard, metal goods, chemicals, iron and steel, textiles, foodstuffs.Imports: $136 billion f.o.b. (2009 est.): machinery and equipment, motor vehicles, chemicals, metal goods, oil and oil products; foodstuffs. Major trading partners: Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Netherlands (2006). Communications: Telephones: main lines in use: 3.564 million (2006); mobile cellular: 9.255 million (2006).Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 65 (plus several hundred repeaters), shortwave 1 (2001). Television broadcast stations: 10 (plus more than 1,000 repeaters) (2001). Internet hosts: 2.427 million (2007). Internet users: 4.2 million (2006). Transportation: Railways: total: 6,021 km (3,552 km electrified) (2004).Highways: 133,718 km; paved: 133,718 km (including 1,677 km of expressways) (2003). Waterways: 358 km (2007). Ports and harbors: Enns, Krems, Linz, Vienna. Airports: 55 (2007). International disputes: In 2006, Austrian public protests for the Czech Republic to close the Temelin nuclear power plant resulted in a parliamentary motion threatening international legal action. Major sources and definitions

Geography | Government | History

Geography

Slightly smaller than Maine, Austria includes much of the mountainous territory of the eastern Alps (about 75% of the area). The country contains many snowfields, glaciers, and snowcapped peaks, the highest being the Grossglockner (12,530 ft; 3,819 m). The Danube is the principal river. Forests and woodlands cover about 40% of the land.

Government

Federal republic.

History

Settled in prehistoric times, the central European land that is now Austria was overrun in pre-Roman times by various tribes, including the Celts. After the fall of the Roman Empire, of which Austria was part, the area was invaded by Bavarians and Slavic Avars. Charlemagne conquered the area in 788 and encouraged colonization and Christianity. In 1252, Ottokar, king of Bohemia, gained possession, only to lose the territories to Rudolf of Hapsburg in 1278. Thereafter, until World War I, Austria's history was largely that of its ruling house, the Hapsburgs. Austria emerged from the Congress of Vienna in 1815 as the continent's dominant power. The Ausgleich of 1867 provided for a dual sovereignty, the empire of Austria and the kingdom of Hungary, under Franz Joseph I, who ruled until his death on Nov. 21, 1916. The Austrian-Hungarian minority rule of this immensely diverse empire, which included German, Czech, Romanian, Serbian, and many other lands, became increasingly difficult in an age of emerging nationalist movements. When Archduke Francis Ferdinand was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist in Sarajevo in 1914, World War I, as well as the destruction of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, began.

During World War I, Austria-Hungary was one of the Central powers with Germany, Bulgaria, and Turkey, and the conflict left the country in political chaos and economic ruin. Austria, shorn of Hungary, was proclaimed a republic in 1918, and the monarchy was dissolved in 1919. A parliamentary democracy was set up by the constitution of Nov. 10, 1920. To check the power of Nazis advocating union with Germany, Chancellor Engelbert Dolfuss in 1933 established a dictatorship, but he was assassinated by the Nazis on July 25, 1934. Kurt von Schuschnigg, his successor, struggled to keep Austria independent, but on March 12, 1938, German troops occupied the country, and Hitler proclaimed its Anschluss (union) with Germany, annexing it to the Third Reich.

An Independent Austria Establishes Constitutional Neutrality

After World War II, the United States and Britain declared the Austrians a “liberated” people, but the Russians prolonged the occupation. Finally Austria concluded a state treaty with the USSR and the other occupying powers and regained its independence on May 15, 1955. The second Austrian republic, established Dec. 19, 1945, on the basis of the 1920 constitution (amended in 1929), was declared by the federal parliament to be permanently neutral.

Austria Establishes Neutrality

On June 8, 1986, former UN secretary-general Kurt Waldheim was elected to the ceremonial office of president in a campaign marked by controversy over his alleged links to Nazi war crimes in Yugoslavia. Austria became a member of the European Union in 1995, but it retained its strict constitutional neutrality and forbade the stationing of foreign troops on its soil.

In Feb. 2000, the conservative People's Party formed a coalition with the far-right Freedom Party, headed by Jörg Haider. A nationalist against immigration, Haider had made several controversial remarks praising some Nazi policies, which he has since recanted. His gradual rise to power was credited to voters weary of decades of stasis under the rule of the Social Democrats. The European Union condemned Austria's new coalition, froze diplomatic contacts, and imposed sanctions, accusing Haider of being a racist, xenophobe, and Nazi sympathizer. Given the controversy, Haider chose not to join the government, but he continued to wield influence from the sidelines.

Failed Coalitions Hinder the Republic's Government

In Sept. 2002, the coalition between the People's Party and the Freedom Party dissolved after a shake-up in the Freedom Party, instigated by Haider. In Nov. 2002, the People's Party made large gains in general elections. After failed coalition talks with other parties, the People's Party again formed a government with the Freedom Party in Feb. 2003. A government plan to overhaul the country's pension program led to widespread strikes in May and June 2003—the first national strikes in decades.

In 2004, Heinz Fischer, known as the “left conscience” of the Social Democrat Party, was elected to the largely ceremonial role of president.

Austria's tough laws against Nazi propaganda led to a three-year prison sentence for infamous British historian David Irving, who pleaded guilty in Feb. 2006 to denying the Holocaust. In Dec. 2006, he was released from prison early, and deported to England.

Three months after elections, Austria's two main parties formed a coalition government in Jan. 2007. The leader of the Social Democrats, Alfred Gusenbauer, became chancellor.

Parliament passed a law in June 2007 that lowered the voting age in Austria to 16.

Infighting Causes Government Collapse

On July 7, 2008, the Austrian government collapsed after months of struggling between the two major political parties, the Social Democratic Party and the People's Party. Elections are expected to be held in September. The chancellor, Alfred Gusenbauer, announced that he would not run for reelection. The new Social Democratic Party leader and transport minister, Werner Faymann, will be the Social Democrat candidate.

In September 2008, the right-wing parties made tremendous gains in parliamentary elections. The Social Democratic Party of Austria won 29.3% of the vote (57 of 183 seats), the Austrian People's Party 26% (51), the Freedom Party of Austria 17.5% (34), the Alliance for the Future of Austria 10.7% (21), the Greens 10.4% (20), and the Liberal Forum 2.1% (0). Turnout was 78.8%. On October 8, 2008, Faymann was asked by President Fischer to form a new government.

On October 11, 2008, during a crucial time in Austrian politics, the leader of the far-right Alliance for the Future of Austria, Jorg Haider, died in a car crash. On November 23, 2008, a coalition was agreed upon. Faymann began serving as Chancellor of Austria on December 2, 2008.

See also Encyclopedia: Austria.
U.S. State Dept. Country Notes: Austria
Central Statistical Office (In German Only) www.statistik.at/ .